What Are Good Teaching Methods For Repair Strategies

December 2010 — Volume 14, Number 3

Repair Strategies Usage of Main Simple ESL Students: Implications for ESL Teachers

Patricia J. Larke
Texas A&K University, College Station, TX, United states of america
<plarketamu.edu>

Abstract

Repair strategies are the ways in which students resolve conversational problems in speaking, hearing and understanding. While there is a plethora of research on college and adult students' repair strategies usage, limited research has been washed on the repair strategies usage of simple school students, more specifically, English as a 2d Language (ESL) students. This article examines the repair strategies used by 5 ESL chief elementary students in grades 1-4. Information were collected from 24 class hours of video recordings. The results revealed that students used nine types of repair strategies:

Unspecified

Interrogatives

(Partial) echo

Partial repeat plus question word

Agreement cheque

Requests for repetition

Request for definition, translation or explanation

Correction

Nonverbal strategies

Of the 9 types, students used agreement cheque 30% of the fourth dimension and (partial) echo 24% of the time.

Introduction and Background

The number of school-aged students who are enrolling in English every bit a 2d Language (ESL) programs in the UsaA. continues to increment, especially in states like Texas, California, New York, and Florida (NCELA, 2010). Typically in these unproblematic ESL classrooms, the didactics is delivered in English and many ESL students have limited English language competence (van Lier, 1988; Cho, 2008). The English instruction and students' limited competence can impact miscommunication between students and teachers. In many situations, students try to solve this miscommunication betwixt their teachers and other students to proceeds the appropriate agreement. Schegloff, Jefferson, and Sacks (1977) telephone call these kinds of activities conversational repair, which is defined as strategies used by students for resolving miscommunication issues involving speaking, hearing and agreement. Still, in many instances, teachers do not answer appropriately to repair strategies that are initiated by students. Understanding how students treat these communication breakdowns will provide teachers with more than insights about how to develop lessons to assistance students in the evolution of their language proficiency.

Since the foundational work of Schegloff et al. (1977) on repair strategies, there has been a growing torso of chat analytic work on repair practices in classroom talk besides every bit in mundane conversation. From the previous research, adult language learners employed seven types of repair strategies. Five of these developed language learners' repair strategies are from Schegloff et al. (1977), which includes unspecified, interrogatives, (partial) repeat, partial echo plus question word, and understanding. Egbert (1998) provides one–requests for repetition–and Liebscher and Dailey-O'Cain (2003) have another, request for definition, translation, or caption. These repair strategies are used for communication breakdown from their natural conversation to classroom chat.

However, trivial research has been done on immature children's talk that involves the clarification of how students use different types of repair strategies in different conversation breakdowns in a second language classroom. As such, this study was designed to investigate primary class elementary students' repair strategies in their classrooms. The inquiry question that guided this study was: What are the types and frequency distributions of students' repair strategies that chief elementary ESL students employ in the classroom? This study will describe the conversations in the ESL classroom, why the communication breakdowns occurred, and how they were solved. More specifically, this article will:

a) Hash out the enquiry on repair strategies
b) Share the results of a study that examined the types of repair strategies used by five unproblematic ESL students

Research on Repair Strategies

In that location are 2 areas of repair strategy inquiry: strategies of native speakers in ordinary conservation and those of linguistic communication learners in classroom settings.

Repair Strategies of Native Speakers in Ordinary Conversation

Repair is an organization of practices of talk in which speakers deal with problems or troubles in speaking, hearing or understanding talk. Schegloff et al. (1977) initially did a comprehensive and thorough investigation of repair in everyday conversation. The researchers identified five types of repair techniques that native speakers utilise when they encounter conversation breakdowns. Schegloff et al.'s (1977) findings have provided the baseline data for repair studies. The following section discusses the 5 repair strategies by Schegloff et al (1977) that have been cited most frequently in chat analysis literature. When someone other than the speaker of the trouble source initiates repair, there are several different practices used to specify the trouble source to initiate the repair.

1. Unspecified Repair Example
2. Interrogatives Repair Example

In this example, there is a single question word such every bit who, where, or when as repair initiations. This type of strategy specifies a trouble source of the prior plough.

three. Partial Echo Plus A Question Word Repair Example

In this type of repair, at that place is a question word with the partial repeat of the trouble source turn. As noted, Speaker M initiates repair for the person "Missiz Kelly" with the verb met and speaker B completes repair in the third turn.

four. Partial Repeat Repair Case

In this example, in that location is a partial repeat of the trouble source turn that is used for repair initiation. This type specifies the trouble source by proverb the time one 10 once more in the second turn, and so Speaker A completes the repair past clarifying the time.

v. Understanding Check Repair Example

Within this example, the repair initiator is you hateful plus a possible understanding of prior plow. Speaker B is initiating repair at the trouble source by giving an alternate understanding of the problem source, then Speaker A completes the repair on the next turn.

Repair Strategies of Language Learners in Classroom Settings

Few studies deal with the repair strategies employed by students (Egbert, 1998; Liebscher & Dailey-O'Cain, 2003). Egbert (1998) studied the types of repair initiations that college German learners employed in dyadic interviews. She categorizes half dozen types of repair initiation that included the v types observed by Schegloff et al. (1977) in ordinary English chat and an additional type called asking for repetition. Among these six types of repair initiations, partial repeats and agreement checks, the simplest strategies that tin be transformed from learners' native language, are the about mutual educatee-initiated repair types. Students do not use some repair types such every bit interrogatives and fractional repeats with question words considering those repairs crave a combination of cognitive, linguistic and interactive skills that may not still be highly developed.

vi. Request for Repetition Instance

Native speakers did not find the request for repetition strategy in the data set of repair initiations. This strategy shows a repetition of the trouble source plough simply as the native speaker forms of unspecified. In response to the S17'southward repair initiation interviewer, Speaker I repeats the entire trouble source turn in lines forty and 41.

Liebscher and Dailey-O'Cain (2003) analyzed the data in an applied linguistics seminar for avant-garde German learners. With their information, they categorized seven types of repair initiation in which they added one more from Egbert (1998)'s typology which was request for definition, translation, or explanation. They compared the repair arrangement between students and their instructor and constitute that students and the instructor used different repair types. According to the report these differences occurred due to their role perception inside the classroom. Students prove a preference for more specific repair initiation techniques when interacting with the instructor. Students employ this type "to avoid committing face-threatening acts that would seem inappropriate to their function in the classroom as learners" (p. 387).

7. Request for Definition Instance

Here student S7 initiates repair to the word which she needs translation. The instructor (TR) provides the definition of the word.

Comeau and Genesee (2001) identified types and frequencies of bilingual children's repair strategies during dyadic communication. Their study provided deeper insights well-nigh monolingual children's conversational skills. Their study constitute that even before children learn their native language fully, they reach relatively high levels of communicative competence. The written report further noted that not only monolingual children merely also bilingual children master important conversational skills, such as the ability to repair communication breakdowns, and that they are capable of responding differentially to diverse types of feedback.

The Written report

The data for this study were collected betwixt September and November 2007 in an ESL classroom in a suburban elementary school in Texas with v students. Twenty-iv ESL classes were video recorded.

The School

The school was chosen primarily because of the diversity of its students (49.3% White, 22.3% Hispanics, 15.half-dozen% Asian/Pacific Islanders, 12.4% African Americans and 0.3% Native Americans). The ESL classes were besides various, which provided greater opportunities for students to use the second language. At this school, students were provided the benefits of two types of ESL instruction: one from the ESL class taught by a certified ESL teacher, and one from ESL tutoring classes taught by ESL tutors from the local university. Students' oral language proficiency and standardized achievement tests provided the rationale for having these 2 types of instructional support. Each class consisted of no more than four students.

The Participants

V students from get-go to fourth grade participated: one Indian, 2 Chinese, and two Koreans. All participants had been living in the USA for less than a twelvemonth. The outset and second grade students (ii Chinese and one Indian) began learning English when they arrived in the USA and had no formal teaching in English language prior to their arrival. Those three students were in the same ESL form based upon their test results. The tertiary- and fourth-form students (2 Koreans) had been learning English for iii years every bit one of their school subjects while in Korea. They were evaluated to the same level of English language proficiency and had tutoring class together.

The instructor was a female native speaker of American English with 15 years of feel in education ESL to children. The tutors were 2 volunteers from a big local university near the elementary school. They were female undergraduate students majoring in child development and wanted a career in didactics. The teacher and the tutors were called on the footing of their professional interests and willingness to participate in the study.

Data Collection

All the data were collected from September to Nov 2007 afterward an Institutional Review Board approval. Videotaping occurred at least ii weeks after the beginning of the semester after permission was granted. I researcher spent fourth dimension in the room to learn routines and to develop relationships with students. This extended classroom presence too enabled the researcher to become familiar with the classroom routines. Artifacts, including the textbook, other activity materials, and board games were collected and examined.

Data Analysis

A total of twenty-four classes of video-taped data were transcribed post-obit transcription conventions developed by Gail Jefferson (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974). With the transcribed data, this study identified all instances of repair initiations by students and coded them according to nine strategy categories. The types and frequencies of each category were tabulated.

The coding categories are illustrated in Effigy 1. The coding procedure started with the Schegloff et al.'s (1977) five categories of repair strategies (unspecified, interrogatives, (partial) repeat, partial repeat plus question word and agreement check for their communication repair). Along with those categories, asking for repetition discovered by Egbert (1998) and requests for definition, translation, or explanation plant in the enquiry of Liebscher and Dailey-O'Cain (2003) were used.

Figure one. Coding Categories

Seven coding categories were used and for some information that did not fit, two new types of repair strategies (nonverbal resources and correction) were added to the categories from other studies. Nonverbal resources have been included in that they affect the meaning making procedure (Goodwin, 2000). Participants in conversation use not just verbal resources only as well nonverbal resources to accomplish their communication (Hayahi, 2003; Streeck, 2003). Nonverbal resources, which were employed as repair initiators by the students, prove that they are having communication problems. This repair initiation usually yields a repetition of the trouble source turn or a modified version of original utterances. The following is an instance from Cho'south (2008) report.

8. Nonverbal Resources Repair Example

Correction has been added to the categories because of its frequent occurrences in the classroom conversation. In ordinary conversation, advice breakdowns acquired by nonnative speaker are resolved in a way that minimizes interruption of ongoing conversation (Brouwer, 2003; Kurhila, 2004). All the same, participants in this study tended to use correction explicitly in their classroom, fifty-fifty though other student initiates her/her repair to the teacher's questions or directions.

ix. Correction Repair Example

While they talked about the nowadays and by verb forms, LK-4 had problems of understanding TK'southward question which caused him to initiate repair in line 2. LK-3 corrected LK-4's utterance in line 4.

Coding Reliability

To establish coding reliability, ane female person volunteer with a principal's degree in ESL was recruited. Subsequently the volunteer understood the purpose of the study, she received training in category identification. The transcripts of 2 classes were used for comparison analysis. Ane transcript from the first/2d grade students' ESL course was coded first with an agreement charge per unit was 82%. Later on much discussion on the disagreements, both the researcher and volunteer achieved an agreement charge per unit of 100% for that class. The third/4th grade class followed the same procedure using i transcript from the third/fourth course students' tutoring grade. The agreement charge per unit between the researcher and volunteer was 94%. This process provided coding reliability.

Findings

The greatest number of fragments of repair strategies were understanding check followed by, (partial) echo, unspecified, nonverbal, interrogatives, correction, asking for definition, translation or explanation, partial repeat plus question give-and-take, and the least was request for repetition.

Table 1. Frequency Distribution of Students' Repair Strategies

Repair Strategies	*northward*	%
Understanding check	177	30
(Fractional) Repeat	144	24
Unspecified	76	13
Nonverbal	59	x
Interrogatives	46	8
Correction	33	vi
Request for definition, translation or explanation	32	5
Partial repeat plus question word	17	three
Request for repetition	v	i
Total	589	100

The ESL teacher was coded TN in fragments where as tutors were coded as TA and TK within the fragments. Students were coded equally LI-1, LC-1, LC-2, LK-three and LK-4. The second alphabetic character represents the ethnicity of the educatee and the number indicates the course of the student.

Table 2. Abbreviations for Fragments

Teacher	Tutors	Students
TN	TA	LI-one
	TK	LC-1
		LC-2
		LK-3
		LK-4

Agreement Check

Uncomplicated ESL students used understanding checks virtually in their classroom to initiate repair. Understanding checks represented 30% of the total repair practices. This type of repair strategy provides an alternate for agreement the problem source. The speaker targets the problem source more specifically than other strategies. In providing an understanding, the speaker indicates his or her estimation of the problem source plough. This type also refers to the students' repair moves where they explicitly say, "I don't know" or "I don't empathise" to testify their understanding problems and initiate repair.

Fragment 1 Understanding Bank check

Teacher TN talked about the opposites noisy and tranquillity. In lines half dozen and 8 in Fragment ane, LI-one initiated the repair past offer a possible understanding of surprise political party in the teacher TN's caption in lines 1 to 5. In line 6, LI-1 negotiated the meaning of the surprise political party with his alternate understanding magic and in line eight with the words, "is it turning up." In lines 7 and 9 the teacher TN agreed to LI-ane's understanding.

The conversation between the teacher and the students in the ESL course was characterized past frequent multiple repair sequences of understanding checks considering of young students' limited attention to the teacher'due south explanations or directions. Fragment 2 shows the multiple sequences of understanding checks.

Fragment 2 Understanding Check

The teacher (TN) talked about the pictures on the wall that illustrated the story "Rosie'south Walk." Under the motion-picture show were samples of hay, flour, and dear, which were in the illustrations. In this sequence there were six repair initiations past the students in lines iii, 6, 8, 12 and 18. Information technology seems that the students were distracted by the samples under the pictures and did not pay attention to the teacher's statements.

(Partial) Echo

The 2nd highest repair strategy used by students was (fractional) repeat. Partial repeats accounted for 24% of the total repair practices. In repeats and fractional repeats, some of the trouble source plow is used again in the repair initiation, which makes them more specific than unspecified repair initiations. Unlike the understanding check, the partial echo did not yield lengthy sequences. With this repair strategy used in the classroom, the communication bug of the students were resolved at the next plow. Fragment 3 is an example of partial repeat.

Fragment 3 Partial Repeat

In line three, LK-4 initiated the repair by repeating the give-and-take "dorsum" from the tutor's dialogue. By the affirmation of tutor (TK) in line four, the trouble was resolved.

Fragment iv Partial Repeat

Fragment 4 is another example of a curt repair sequence with partial echo. It seems that LK-four wanted to make sure what he heard past repeating the word castle. His answer in line 7 indicates that his problem was resolved.

Unspecified

Forth with the (partial) repeats, unspecified was mutual student initiated repair strategy. Students apply unspecified strategy about xiii% of the time. This type of strategy does not specify what the trouble source (eastward.g., huh? pardon? I'thou sorry? etc.). This repair initiation normally yields a repetition of the trouble source, which the repair initiator could non hear or understand the meaning of on the previous plow.

Fragment 5 Unspecified

In Fragment five line vi, LK-4 initiated the repair with unspecified. His initiation did not show if he did not understand the specific words or phrase or the whole of the tutor'south explanation. In line 7, the tutor TK chose to echo the question that she asked correct earlier LK-4'southward initiation. In line 9, the LK-4's acknowledgement token yeah followed by correct answer to the tutor's question showed that the problem source was the tutor's question and the advice breakdown was solved.

Fragment half dozen Unspecified

The dialogue occurred at the beginning of semester and students LK-three and LK-4 were non familiar with tutors. Even though they had English education in their land, they showed limited oral proficiency in terms of hearing and speaking. Fragment vi shows students' repair initiations to the unfamiliar speech of a native speaker in class. In lines two and 4, information technology seems that LK-four could non understand tutor TK'due south significant due to the unfamiliar speech of the native speaker. The first problem was non resolved by the tutor's repetition of the problem source in line 3, and the student LK-4 tried to initiate repair with nonverbal once again in line iv. After observing the interaction between LK-3 and the tutor TK, LK-iv finally resolved the problem.

Nonverbal

This category of nonverbal strategies includes students' gesture, bodily motion, gaze, facial expression and silence. Nonverbal repair strategies were used nigh of time past LC-2 who came to the Usa one month before. Since LC-ii had no English language pedagogy before coming to the U.s.a., the simply strategy that he used at the get-go of the semester was nonverbal. Fragment seven is an instance of a nonverbal strategy used by LC-2.

Fragment 7 Nonverbal

In line 4 the student LC-2's repair initiation with indistinct sound indicated that he had a problem understanding the teacher. In line five, his instructor TN provided the trouble source 1 more than time. However, LC-i replaced the turn of LC-2 past explicit correction in line half dozen.

Interrogatives

This type of strategy starts with a unmarried question word such as who, where or when equally repair initiations. This type of strategy specifies trouble source of prior plow.

Fragment 8 Interrogatives

In Fragment viii, LK-3 initiates the repair with a unmarried question word who at the line 5. To LK-iii, the association Silvia with Castilian proper name contributed to interruption downwards the communication. It seems that LK-three did not understand cultural context of the give-and-take. The lack of sociocultural noesis was observed to contribute to the students' difficulty in understanding. LK-three's repair initiation with interrogatives was launched and the tutor TK mended the communication problems.

Correction

The students tended to use this strategy explicitly in their classroom conversation. Correction is related to non only linguistic errors simply also comprehension of the problem source turn.

Fragment 9 Correction

In line four, LC-2 responded to his teacher with middle gaze, nonverbal way of advice. In line 5, the rushed talk of LI-1 indicated that he considered LC-2'southward gazing as a repair initiation and he offered correction to the LC-ii.

Requests for Definition, Translation or Explanation

This repair type targets what needed to be repaired. Along with the requests for repetition, this type is specific to the classroom of language learners. In the Fragment 10, they are reading a volume.

Fragment x Requests for Definition, Translation or Explanation

While LK-3 read the textbook LK-four encountered the vocabulary problems and launched repair right after LK-3's turn. Tutor TK's explanation near the repairable dissolved the communication breakdown in the side by side several turns.

Partial Repeat plus Question Give-and-take

This type includes repetition of the trouble source turn with a question give-and-take. In Fragment 11, they discussed the torso parts of kangaroos.

Fragment 11 Partial Repeat plus Question Word

Tutor TK asked the students to circle the words back paws and pointed where they are. However, LK-3's repair initiation in line half-dozen, partial echo with a question word, indicated his loss of the subject. In line 7, tutor TK's response resolved the chatty problem.

Requests for Repetition

This type is like to the unspecified category in that it can also yield a repetition of the trouble source turn as response. Requests for repetition are specific to the classroom of linguistic communication learners. In Fragment 12, they were talking about the past tense verb forms.

Fragment 12 Request for Repetition

In line two, LK-four started his plough with two types of repair initiation. Unspecified was followed by a request for repetition. Tutor TK responded with the repetition of the trouble source in her plow in line 3.

Give-and-take

The primary purpose of this written report was to examine the repair strategies that elementary ESL students used to deal with communication breakdown in their ESL classroom. The information examined in this written report showed some similarities and differences with the previous inquiry on repair strategies. Elementary students used various repair strategies that were observed in conversations of adult native speakers and language learners. Specific repair initiation types such equally understanding check, fractional repeat, unspecified were the three mutual strategies used by unproblematic students. These findings are consistent with like studies (Egbert, 1998; Liebscher & Dailey-O'Cain, 2003). Understanding check is the most specific repair initiation blazon found in everyday conversation and partial repeat is also highly specific with respect to the kind of trouble that is targeted (Schegloff, 1987). The trend of using specific repair initiations can be applied to uncomplicated ESL students as well equally adult language learners. Meanwhile, complicated strategies that require a combination of cognitive and linguistic skills, such as asking for repetition, fractional echo plus question word, request for definition, translation, or explanation were not observed frequently. Since the students in this report were at the beginning level of English competence, they rarely used the almost avant-garde types of repair strategies in their classrooms.

This report offers a contribution to the repair strategies inquiry by examining the utilise of repair strategies in primary elementary ESL classrooms. Afterwards analyzing the information from the main elementary ESL classroom, it became necessary to add new categories to the combined categories derived from the previous studies. Those were correction and nonverbal resources. In natural conversation, participants accept a tendency not to utilise explicit correction; instead, they disguise this design as what Lerner (1996) identifies as "a listing of alternatives." However, the young language learners in this study tended to use this strategy explicitly in their classroom conversation. This type is related to comprehension of the trouble source turn and linguistic errors. It includes pronunciation, grammar, syntax, morphology, vocabulary meaning, usage of words, and content. Some other strategy observed in this study is nonverbal resources. A wide range of nonverbal actions such every bit body movements, gazing, and facial expressions were establish in this study by the students who did not have English proficiency.

Decision

In that location are three important findings in our research. Showtime, this study involved analyzing conversations of young learners in master ESL classroom while most studies involved older students and developed learners. Past describing the process of primary students' repair practices, this report raises the need for unproblematic ESL teachers and researchers to be aware of the types of conversational problems that occur in principal elementary classroom. Such data can be useful in understanding the repair practices of primary ESL students in solving their communication breakdowns.

Secondly, results from this study support the need to examine ESL materials and lessons that will assistance students in the development of repair strategies. This report found that elementary ESL students who were newcomers to United states of america schools take a tendency to use simple strategies such as unspecified and fractional repeat in their classroom. More attention should exist given to the ESL curriculum that will assist students in developing more sophisticated repair methods and communication breakdowns.

Thirdly, this study adopted conversational analysis every bit analytic framework that is dissimilar from those previously used in second language acquisition studies. Instead of analyzing linguistic products of students, this study focused on the processes toward common understanding between students and teachers. With a micro-analytic approach, this study provided insights about ESL students' repair patterns, functions and strategies. Such research arroyo could assist in helping ESL teachers work more than finer with the increasing population of ESL students in Us schools or in other countries that are experiencing population growths of ESL or EFL students. We practise not propose that repair strategies are the panacea for helping students to increase their proficiency in learning a second language. Still, we proposed that if educators were aware of the types of chat breakdowns and repair strategy usage, they could employ the necessary instructional strategies to assist primary students in the development of more sophisticated repair strategies.

In summary, much of the research on repair strategies has addressed repair strategies usage with adult linguistic communication learners. However, the findings from this report point that chief elementary ESL students frequently use repair strategies such as agreement check and partial repeat, and that they also use nonverbal and correction. Since many students in the study are at the showtime level of English oral proficiency, they do non have the same noesis of repair strategies or usage of repair strategies equally adult language learners. Therefore, these master elementary ESL students responded to their communication issues in their classrooms with simple strategies such equally nonverbal and corrections. Moreover, information technology is imperative that more than research is conducted with main elementary students and their repair strategies usage to provide information near how students at this level treat their communication breakdowns. Such work is important in assisting the level of English proficiency for primary unproblematic ESL or EFL students who are growing apace in schools.

About the Authors

Eun Hye Cho received her PhD in Curriculum and Pedagogy with emphasis in English language equally a 2nd Language (ESL) and multicultural education from the Department of Teaching, Learning and Culture, Texas A&M University. Her research interests are conversational repair, 2nd language acquisition, and classroom chat. She teaches in the Department of English, Sookmyung Women's Academy, Seoul, Korea.

Patricia J. Larke is a professor in the Department of Educational activity, Learning and Culture, Texas A&G University, College Station, TX. Her research interests are multicultural education, culturally responsive teaching, and educating teachers for diverse classrooms.

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